Prologue

views

The author begins this introduction with a personal experience: A friend asked him why European whites had more wealth and resources than African or Australian Aborigines. This question led to another:

Why is wealth distributed in the world as it is today?

In order to answer this ultimate question, 4 main reasons are considered in the following paragraphs. The first 3 explanations focused on genes, climate and geography, all of which failed to solve the problem due to a lack of scientific evidence. The last one, which focuses on guns, diseases and steel tools, reveals the real answer, according to the author.

genetic explanation

based on Darwin's theory, people in Europe have more intelligence than those in African etc.
but this explanation lacks scientific evidence
- a survey in American has failed to prove geographical causes are more important than environmental causes such as education

climate reasons

cold climates require people to be more technologically inventive to survive

perhaps the seasonally variable climate at high latitudes poses more diverse challenges than does a seasonally constant tropical climate

this explanation also failed to survive scrutiny
- North Europeans are lucky to have advanced technologies
- Maya civilization origins from tropical areas is the most advanced in the first millennium A.D.

geographical answer

highly productive agriculture depended on large-scale irrigation systems that in turn required centralized bureaucracies
but detailed archaeological studies have shown that complex irrigation systems did not accompany the rise of centralized bureaucracies but followed after a considerable lag

words & phrases & expressions

单词

encompass vi.
1. = to include a wide range of ideas, subjects... 包含各种思想ideas，包含各个方面aspects，包含世界人口/各个种族 most of the population/ ethic, cultural and linguistic groups e.g. The study encompass social political and economics aspects.
2. = to completely cover or surround something
incipient adj. = start to develop
1. an incipient black eye 刚发生的丑事
2. incipient faults 潜在隐患
preliterate adj. = without writing
proximate adj.
1. = direct (reason) e.g. All these ingredients are just proximate factors, not ultimate explanation.
2. = close (in time, order or family relationship) e.g. The usual answers to that question invoke proximate forces, such as the rise of capitalism, mercantilism, scientific inquiry and technology. （可以在叙述某现象的产生原因时使用）
idiosyncratic n. = an usual habit or way of behaving (feature) that someone (something) has e.g. idiosyncratic cultural factors 特定的文化因素 （修饰原因、因素等，让文章更严谨，替换characteristic/featured）
insatiable adj. = always want more and more 中性词，视语境定义褒贬
1. insatiable desire of power/money 对权力/钱财贪得无厌
2. insatiable curiosity/thirst for knowledge 对知识无尽的好奇/渴望
v. = replace (be more modern or effective) e.g. As society evolves, the focus on broad horizons supersedes school work alone. 随着社会发展，对宽广眼界的关注取代了只对学业的关注。 （可以用在gap year相关的作文里）

disparate rates e.g. those disparate rates demonstrated by the pie chart constitute the broadest pattern in coffee consumption （写咖啡消费比例，饼状图）
of academic interest / of overwhelming practical importance 出于学术兴趣/具有重大的实际意义 e.g. This subject/issue is not only of academic interest but also of overwhelming practical importance. （在提出一个观点/主题时可以使用的套话，同时具有学术和实际意义）
suffer from the disadvantages 具有……的缺点（在分别论述优缺点的作文中可以使用） e.g. Such narrowly focused accounts of gap year suffer from three disadvantages.（反驳他人的观点）
provide deep understanding 提供深层理解
bypass the obvious big question 忽略了明显重要的问题 e.g. Apparently this point of view bypasses the obvious big question.（可以在叙述其他观点的问题/缺点时使用，反驳）
be fitted into a broader context 在一个更广阔的语境中适用 e.g. Answering these questions require us to take... into consideration, so that this policy can be fitted in a broader context. （对解决方案/政策进行范围上，总结“回答这些问题要求我们考虑到……，可以让这个政策在更大的范围内适用；升华、改进句）
those huge disparities have potent effects 这些巨大的差异具有强大的影响

主题

politics & strategies

centralized bureaucracies 集中官僚制 e.g. Strict policies conducted by government might lead to disadvantages of centralized bureaucracies, like abuse of power or corruption. （雅思2023年2月作文：应该无限制用水还是让政府严格控制用水？请分别论述优缺点）

civilization & lives of human being

domestic animals = domesticated animals 家畜注意paraphrase的运用
可以在进行社会生活相关话题的时候作为evidence
- 现代社会中生活的改变
- 科技带来的改变
- welfare相关话题 e.g. compared with hunter-gatherers, citizens of modern industrialized states enjoy better medical care, lower risk of death by homicide, and a longer life span, but receive much less social support from friendships and extended families
the historical... have cast long shadow on the modern world 历史遗留的……问题在现代世界中投下了巨大的阴影

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